Mixtures and blends of herbs, spices and other ingredients, essential to the creation of types of cuisine, for example:

• Jalapeno, chipotle, cumin, oregano = Mexican
• Basil, oregano, marjoram, garlic = Mediterranean
• Lemon, soy, ginger, aniseed, fennel = Chinese
• Lemon grass, galangal, star anise, green peppercorns = Thai
• Coriander, capsicum, cardamom, cumin, fenugreek, turmeric, fennel, ginger, capsicum = Indian

Other ingredients may be added to make a complete seasoning, for example, salt, flour, sugar, colour, hydrolysed protein.

Produced by dry blending a package of ingredients to produce a complete (savoury) taste such as salami, chilli, tortilla, and lasagne.

A compound flavour is usually composed of top-notes, body and base flavours as follows e.g.:

• Top-notes: top-note meat flavours, OR herb and spice extracts, OR natural extracts
• Body: process reaction flavours, meat extracts
• Base: HVP’s, yeast extracts, soy sauce, flavour enhancers, ground spices.

Main uses:

• snacks;meals
• meat products
• sauces.

Process flavours are heat-treated substrates that undergo a Maillard reaction process.

Hydrolysed Vegetable Proteins (HVPs) are formed from the result of acid hydrolysis of protein based (plant) substrates.

Autolysed yeasts & yeast extracts (AYE) are single cell organisms which are by-products of the brewing & baking industries.

All of these products are capable of imparting a range of meat flavours, including dark, burnt red meat notes to light poultry. Some impart cheese type flavours. HVPs are tending to lose favour due to concerns regarding 3-MCPD, a potential carcinogen formed during the hydrolysation process. Many are being replaced by autolysed yeast-based products.

Flavour enhancers are used to provide a boost to the existing flavour. At a simple level it could be argued that salt (sodium chloride) is the most basic enhancer. (Use as salt substitutes is excluded.) However, for the purposes of an industrial analysis the main components comprise monosodium glutamate (MSG), nucleotides and similar. European E number enhancers include:

• E620 Glutamic acid
• E621 Monosodium glutamate E622 Monopotassium glutamate
• E623 Calcium diglutamate
• E624 Ammonium glutamate
• E625 Magnesium diglutamate
• E626 Guanylic acid
• E627 Disodium guanylate, sodium guanylate
• E628 Dipotassium guanylate
• E629 Calcium guanylate
• E630 Inosinic acid
• E631 Disodium inosinate
• E632 Dipotassium inosinate
• E633 Calcium inosinate
• E634 Calcium 5’-ribonucleotide
• E635 Disodium 5’-ribonucleotide
• E636 Maltol
• E637 Ethyl maltol
• E640 Glycine and its sodium salt
• Thaumatin (classified as intense sweetener).

A colour additive is any material that is a dye, pigment, or other substance made by a process of synthesis or similar, or extracted, isolated, or otherwise derived, with or without intermediate or final change of identity, from a vegetable, animal, mineral, or other source and that, when added or applied to a food is capable (alone or through reaction with another substance) of imparting a colour.

In this category, only concentrated dye products are included. Excluded are products such as caramel which is used in relatively high concentrations and which also has a flavouring function. Natural concentrated extracts, such as those derived from vegetable sources, like turmeric or paprika, are included along with synthetic and lake dyes. Categorisations include synthetic, natural and nature-identical (synthesised naturals). Excludes fruit and plant materials that happen to impart colour.

Omega-3 fatty acids occur naturally in many foods. Sources include oily fish and certain plants (flax and safflower) and it is often difficult to tell by looking at food and supplements whether Omega-3 fatty acids have been added (as such) or are present from natural sources (plant oils, cod liver oil), or both.

Fish and plant oils are used as major components of some foods (margarines, salad dressings etc.). Traditionally, these have not been used to specifically add Omega-3 but must be measured in order to understand the overall situation.

Secondly, measuring the amounts of Omega-3 that are added can be complex. They can be administered in the form of plant, algae or fish oils, enriched, concentrates or as micro-encapsulated material. In each case a different amount of ingredient may be added to achieve the same result in the finished product, depending on its degree of concentration (of DHA, EPA, ALA, etc.).

Given these potential pitfalls, in order to attain consistency, we have measured the market as added Omega-3 fatty acids. For example, a product might be made from fish or plant oil which is not added specifically to boost Omega-3 content and these instances have been excluded.

In the case of the added Omega-3s measured here, it may be that in some cases fish oil has been added in order to achieve the desired result whilst, in others, a concentrate may have been used. As we have measured only the DHA, EPA, ALA contents of each product, actual additions of material could have been up to 15 times the weights as measured here.

Although the importance of fat substitutes in food is well known, it is a difficult market to measure. The range of products used to substitute fat is wide and so are their usage levels. In order to measure the markets our analysis has been built first on measuring the markets for food products claiming low- or reduced-fat contents and then to measure the market for fat substitutes based on the quantity and of fat replaced. Values are based on average values for hydrocolloids and others materials used for fat substitution.

There are just two basic categories of sweeteners: nutritive and non-nutritive (otherwise known as caloric and non-caloric or bulk and intense). Nutritive sweeteners provide calories or energy to the diet at about four calories per gram. Nutritive sweeteners include sugar sweeteners (refined sugars, high fructose corn syrup, fructose, dextrose, corn sweeteners, honey, lactose, maltose, various syrups and invert sugars) and polyols or sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, isomalt).

Non-nutritive, or intense sweeteners (such as saccharin and aspartame) do in fact contain a significant amount of energy but because usage levels in food and drink are so low (generally less than 0.1%) their caloric contribution to the diet is negligible.

Polyols generally contribute slightly less sweetness than sugar (sucrose) on a weight-for-weight basis but, when consumed, are not totally absorbed by the intestines so much of their caloric value is simply passed out of the body.

Sucrose and fructose are the primary sugar sweeteners that occur naturally in the food supply or are added as sugars. These sweeteners add functional properties to foods through their effects on sensoric, physical (crystallization, viscosity), microbial (preservation, fermentation), and chemical (caramelization, antioxidation) properties.

Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose and provides 4 kilocalories per gram. Commercially, sucrose comes from processing sugar cane or sugar beets. Refinement removes the yellow-brown pigments of unrefined sugar to produce the white crystal form of table sugar. Molasses is the least refined form of sucrose.

Fructose is a component of sucrose and is present in fruit (also known as fruit sugar or levulose), and is often added to foods and beverages as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) or in the crystalline form. Fructose is manufactured through the isomerization of dextrose in cornstarch. Although on a weight-for-weight basis fructose is much sweeter than sugar, HFCS is often adjusted to give the same effect as sucrose.

Because of the way in which fructose is absorbed by the body, fructose intake may lead to a slower rise in blood glucose than sucrose-based sweeteners. For this reason, fructose is often used in diabetic products such as chocolate

Polyols can replace sugar sweeteners, usually on a one-to-one or two-to-one basis whilst offering lower caloric intake and potential health benefits such as reduced glycaemic response and reduced dental caries. The polyols sorbitol, mannitol, and xylitol are found in plant products such as fruits and berries. Commercially, these sweeteners are synthesized and not extracted from natural sources. All polyols are absorbed slowly and incompletely from the intestine. Therefore, an excessive load may cause diarrhoea. Because of their usually incomplete absorption, polyols produce a low glycaemic response

Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential in small amounts to the life and health of humans and animals. Vitamins, by definition, cannot be synthesized in the body so they must be consumed regularly as part of the diet. Some animals are able to synthesize their own requirements for some of these compounds, but monogastric animals need all the vitamins in their diet in natural or synthetic form (with acknowledgement to BASF).

Vitamins can be classed into two types: fat-soluble and water-soluble.

Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K.

Water-soluble: B1, B2, B5, B6, B12, nicotinic acid, C, biotin, folic acid

Minerals are essential micronutrients that combine with other elements in order to regulate a variety of biochemical reactions inside the body. They can be found in enzymes, hormones, bones and muscles and, as such, form essential parts of the body’s structure. As for vitamins, minerals cannot be synthesized in the body; they must be ingested but can be found in nearly all foods.

Food acidulants are used for both their acidity and taste regulation. Whilst they reduce the pH of food and drink to which they are added, they also modify flavour and, in some cases, act as sequestrants and water complexers. The most commonly used acidulant is citric acid. Others comprise lactic, tartaric, malic, fumaric, adipic, ascorbic, succinic, phosphoric, sorbic, propionic and acetic acids.

Agents and common uses

Citric acid: soft drinks, jams and jellies, dehydrated foods, canned foods

Lactic acid: cheese, bread, wine, beer, meat products, salads, pickles, dressings

Tartaric acid: jams, gels, soft drinks, confectionery

Malic acid: sauces, dry mixes, juices

Fumaric acid: gels, preserves, soft drinks.

Fats become oxidised over time and develop off-flavours. The period of time after which a fat may be deemed to become unpalatable (rancid) varies depending on storage conditions (temperature, exposure to light, etc.) as well as on the natural stability of the original material. For example, extra virgin olive oil may still taste fresh after years of storage whereas mayonnaise may begin to taste rancid after a few months’ storage. The process of oxidative rancidity may also destroy essential fatty acids and vitamins.

A variety of substances (antioxidants), both natural and synthetic, are used to retard this process. Natural antioxidants range from the tocopherols, which occur naturally in some fats, to extract of rosemary. Synthetic alternatives include the gallic acid esters, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Usage levels are usually low, in the region of 0.01% to 0.02% of the fat content.

Combinations of these with each other or with citric acid may often prove most effective.

Antioxidants are used in many, but not all, instances where products are fried or where there is some addition of fat/oil in the recipe. Applications are therefore widespread and can include cooking and culinary fats and oils, baked products, fruit oils, prepackaged raw meat, chewing gum, breakfast cereals, dehydrated soups, savoury snacks, lemon curd, instant mashed potato, instant desserts, sauces and soft drinks.

European E numbered antioxidants:

• E300 Ascorbic acid
• E301 Sodium ascorbate
• E302 Calcium ascorbate
• E304 Fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid
• E306 Tocopherols
• E307 Alpha-tocopherol
• E308 Gamma-tocopherol
• E309 Delta-tocopherol
• E310 Propyl gallate
• E311 Octyl gallate
• E312 Dodecyl gallate
• E315 Erythorbic acid
• E316 Sodium erythorbate
• E320 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
• E321 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)

The preservation of food and drink can be achieved through both physical and chemical means. Today, there are available some interesting methods of preservation such as modified atmosphere packaging and barrier coating whereby a protective additive is sprayed on to fruit and vegetables to resist atmospheric attack. The report data, however, is concerned only with chemical methods involving the addition of an ingredient to the foodstuff.

Chemical preservatives are added to foods to inhibit, retard or arrest the growth of micro-organisms and product deterioration caused by microbial, enzymic or chemical degradation. While protecting consumers against food poisoning caused by bacterial growth, contamination and spoilage, they also enable manufacturers to prolong the shelf life of products, help in improving the appearance of certain foods, and will even preserve other nutritional and functional additives incorporated in recipes. Chemical methods involve the addition of anti-microbials or acidulants (see below). Levels of usage of either are usually less than 1% of the final formulation.

Anti-microbials

Anti-microbial agents inactivate or inhibit the growth of moulds and bacteria and include:

Benzoic acid and benzoates

Common uses: fruit and vinegar based products, beverages, pickles, sauces, pot meals, fruit purées, yogurt

Nitrites and nitrates

Common uses: meat, poultry, fish, cheeses, meat products: salami, ham, bacon, paté

Sulphites and sulphur dioxide

Common uses: prepared potatoes, fruit-based compounds, wine, beer, juices, pickles

Sorbic acid and sorbates

Common uses: surface treatment on hard cheeses and dried sausages, baked goods, confectionery, fruit preserves, semi-dried fruit, soft drinks, cider

Propionic acid and propionates

Common uses: bread, cakes, morning goods, pizzas

Acetates

Common uses: bread, cheese, dehydrated foods, frozen vegetables, sauces and dressings

Nisin

Common uses: processed cheese, dairy products, some canned foods

Approved preservatives by E number:

• E200 Sorbic acid
• E202 Potassium sorbate
• E203 Calcium sorbate
• E210 Benzoic acid
• E211 Sodium benzoate
• E212 Potassium benzoate
• E213 Calcium benzoate
• E214 Ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E215 Sodium ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E216 Propyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E217 Sodium propyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E218 Methyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E219 Sodium methyl p-hydroxybenzoate
• E220 Sulphur dioxide
• E221 Sodium sulphite
• E222 Sodium hydrogen sulphite
• E223 Sodium metabisuiphite
• E224 Potassium metabisulphite
• E226 Calcium sulphite
• E227 Calcium hydrogen sulphite
• E228 Potassium hydrogen sulphite
• E230 Biphenyl; diphenyl
• E231 Orthophenyl phenol
• E232 Sodium orthophenyl phenol
• E234 Nisin
• E235 Natamycin
• E239 Hexamethylene tetramine
• E242 Dimethyl dicarbonate
• E249 Potassium nitrite
• E250 Sodium nitrite
• E251 Sodium nitrate
• E252 Potassium nitrate
• E280 Propionic acid
• E281 Sodium propionate
• E282 Calcium propionate
• E283 Potassium propionate
• E284 Boric acid
• E285 Sodium tetraborate; borax
• E1105 Lysozyme

Thickeners are part of an important group of functional food ingredients known as hydrocolloids and are responsible for increasing viscosity. This capability can also have the additional effects of stabilising an emulsion, improving texture (mouth-feel), prevention of syneresis, moisture retention, foam formation, or binding-in/suspending, particulates.

The usage of thickeners tends to be quite high in ingredient terms, often in the range 2% to 5% of the weight of finished product. However, some specialist gums and cellulose compounds can be used at levels as low as 0.1% and still have a significant effect on the finished product. Thickeners may be divided into eight groups:

• starches (mainly derived from maize or potatoes)
• modified starches
• gums (derived from plants and animals)
• gelatins (animal hides)
• celluloses (plant fibre)
• alginates (seaweed)
• pectins (from fruit pulp)
• other (including caseinates, soya-based compounds and other proteins)

Usage of these materials is not straightforward. Often, combinations, or blends, of more than one thickener may be used in one product for a variety of technical reasons. Many products are also interchangeable and usage may be significantly influenced by prevailing prices. It must also be remembered that the total usage for starches and thickeners is much larger than that quoted here as they are often used in non-food products.

Note:

We have defined the above products under the term ingredients. Often the term additive is used for those normally added at low levels and ingredient used to denote those included at higher levels in the finished product. We use the term ingredient to denote the many products that are added to food and drink in order to:

• Add or modify flavour
• Add or modify colour
• Add or modify rheology
• Preserve/retard spoilage
• Fortify
• Reduce calories